Buddhism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Buddhism - Research Paper Example For instance, where Christian worldview advocates that salvation and rebirth is possible through the divine nature of the individual as it was in the case of Jesus Himself, in Buddhism, believes argue that salvation and rebirth is a cycle of life which is judged by the Karma of the individual and is not restricted to the spiritual holiness of the soul. To be precise, in Buddhism, the deeds of the person during his life cycle, decides the form of his/her birth as a human or else. However, in Christianity, the philosophical claim propounds that the way to salvation is through Him. Again, principles in Buddhism showed the way to Nirvana and asked the followers to find their own path to attain a life after death. The Christian worldview thus believes that rebirth is possible by following the doctrines of Bible, and the human soul gets birth as only human; but, Buddhism states that rebirth means ‘life after death’, which depends on the Karma of the individuals, where the indi viduals can take birth as anything in accordance with their deeds (Zukeran, â€Å"Reincarnation and Christianity†). ... On the other hand, the new testimonial followers believed that rebirth is possible only when following the path of Jesus Christ. The concept of rebirth, as per the Christian worldview, thus happens through miracle, which was only possible by Jesus Christ as He was the ‘son of the God’. Reincarnation of soul from one body to another is only possible only when the individual have a strong believe on Christ’s principles and by such means get His blessings on the soul. The path to rebirth, according to Christianity, is determined through the life of the people as per the new vision on reincarnation. The philosophical claim of Christianity thus propounds that a strong belief of the individuals on the principles of Christ will help them in attaining rebirth. Hence, Christian worldview, the concept of rebirth revolves around the strength of the belief one has about the existence of God (Hodson 1-6). BUDDHISM PERSCEPTIVE ON REBIRTH The Buddhism perspective on rebirth demo nstrates change in continuity of life from one individual to other. According to the perspective of Buddhism, the karma of an individual helps to attain enlightenment which represents purity of life. In case, a person or an individual does not attain Nirvana, the death cycle continues and the soul gets rebirth in the form of â€Å"Asura,† â€Å"Hungry Ghost,† â€Å"Human life† and â€Å"Animals† (Buddha Dharma Education, â€Å"Fundamentals of Buddhism†). According to the teachings of Buddha, rebirth depends on Karma of the person that denotes his/her acts and deeds. Also, Buddhist believes that death is the end of physical body, but the spirit seeks out for new life and body. The rebirth of an individual is the cause and effect of his/her

Importance of black church Essay Example for Free

Importance of black church Essay One of the primary institutional foundations of the black community is the Black church. It is necessary to evaluate the role that has been played by the Black church in response of the abovementioned needs and negative impacts of the black youth today. In this regard, a total of 635 Northern churches were surveyed by the Black Church Family Project. The North Central comprises of 320 churches, while, Northeastern United States comprises of 315 churches. Youth support programs were regarded during the existence of the churches. Adolescent nonmembers of the church were targeted by at least one program in one hundred and seventy-six churches. Low-income homes were most of the targets, as suggested during the study. â€Å"Many have sought to account for the distinctive features of black religious life by focusing major attention on the distant past. They have been preoccupied with African roots rather than with the American experience out of which the black churches emerged† (1983, 157). A variety of sources was used by the Black Church Family Project for the identification of the targets, as black churches were not having any comprehensive list of their churches. Official denominational lists, the National Urban League, as well as, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s local chapters were included in these sources. In addition, local ministerial alliance’s list, and data from the universities were also included in the sources. The executive offices of the mayors and county executives were also inquired for any valid information during the study. Funeral directors, telephone directories, and black churches, as well as, the denominations were also included and regarded in the sources during the assessment of sources as maximum as possible. The Lincoln and Mamiya study that was done in the year 1990 was focused during the study, and its seven historically black denominations were focused as a goal during the study. Eight historically white denominations and several other black denominations were also used for the maximum collection of information regarding the subject. Several noteworthy limitations have been confronted during the study. First, no previously developed or verified resources were benefited by the designing of the project-sampling frame due to the non-availability of the national roster of black congregations. The identification of the sampling universe was the first major problem of the study. The actual number of the black churches across the country was unknown, although, 65,000 to 75,000 was the estimated number of black churches in the United States, as agreed by the religious scholars of the country. Identification and location of some churches were not possible due to their faith traditions and churches with no permanent addresses and telephone numbers. Therefore, the sample excluded and underrepresented these entities. Thirty-nine percent of the churches provided the greatest interest regarding the teen-support programs among the 176 churches, in which, youth programs were organized. Christian fellowships, seminars group, workshops discussions, rap sessions, counseling, and ministry were consisted in these programs. Sports activities were the second most prominent offering in these churches. Athletic camps, teams, and martial arts classes were provided by thirty-one percent of the churches. Three percent of the churches provided youth AIDS support programs, while two percent of the churches offered youth health-related services, which were among the least common programs. Persons with AIDS were given with financial support, counseling, classes, and seminars by the former one. Health clinics, screening of health problems, and seminars were included in the latter one. However, it should be noted that fifteen percent of the churches offered substance abuse programs. Counseling for drug and alcohol, seminars for drug abuse preventive measures, and various workshops were included in these substance abuse programs of the churches. Additionally, sixteen percent of the churches offered college student financial support services, which included emergency financial assistance, and scholarships. Parenting and sexuality issues were handled by fifteen percent of the churches. These churches offered counseling, classes, workshops, pregnancy preventive measures, seminars, and support for teen parents. Issues regarding the youth at risk were dealt by fourteen percent of the churches. Counseling, delinquency prevention, and delinquent youth residence issues were included in these offering. Role modeling was reported by eight percent of the churches, which included mentors, and foster grandparents. Employment and job readiness was reported by seven percent of the churches, which included summer employment opportunities, job training, and career/job fairs. Other youth support programs were listed by fourteen percent of the churches. The importance of human resources and leadership was suggested by another finding. The more youth programs were found, when the clergy was paid more. Youth programs were offered by only sixteen percent of the churches with no paid clergy. However, one paid clergy was found in only twenty-nine percent of the churches, and two or more paid clergy were found in forty-nine percent of the churches during the study. The youth programs were also depended on the number of paid staff in the churches. In this regard, youth programs were offered by only eighteen percent of the churches, which were not having any paid staff. The youth programs were existed in a number of characteristics of the churches. Methodist, middle-class, older, and larger membership churches were found to be more interested in organizing youth programs in their communities. In addition, owned or mortgaged, and churches with more staff and paid clergy were also appeared to be having greatest interest in youth programs. Youth programs are not offered by most of the black churches, even with the availability of such characteristics and resources. For instance, some types of family-oriented community outreach programs are offered by two-thirds of black churches in Northern regions, the specific youth programs are addressed by only a quarter of these churches. In addition, some variations were also noted among the churches during the study. Considerable potential for expansion is suggested, as youth programs have been engaged and organized by only a quarter of black churches.

Neurological Aspects of Pain

Neurological Aspects of Pain 1.1. Functional Properties of Nerve Fibres 1.1.1. Properties of Peripheral Somatic Nerves Peripheral somatic nerves consists generally of somatic-motor, autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. 1.1.1.1. Somatic-motor fibres for the striated musculature The cell bodys of somatomotor fibres for the striated musculature are always lying in the brainstem (12 pare cerebral nerves) or the fore horn of the whole spinal medulla. The stimulus runs from central to peripheral (efferent). The lateral cutaneous femoral nerve consists of sensible fibres and no motor fibres. The shiatic nerve consists of 20% motor fibres, 30% sensible, and 50% sympathetic fibres. The gluteal nerves consist of pure motor fibres, sympathetic fibres and no sensible fibres. 1,2 1.1.1.2. Autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of blood- and lymphatic vessels The autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of sympathetic origin. Venes are not innervated. They function by the musculare pump system and in some cases by valves. The cells bodies of the autonomic-motor fibres are situated in the lateral horn between C8-L2. They are termed: the centro-ganglionar neurons. All motor neurons, situated in the spinal medulla go via the fore horn to the peripheral nerve. It must be mentioned that all smooth muscles can contract without external innervation (for example: heart, gut). This is due to the intrinsic nerve system with is influenced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 3-5 1.1.1.3. Sensible fibres for somatic structures The sensible fibres for somatic structures originate from muscles, tendons, capsules, joints, ligaments and bones. Their cell bodies are lying in the spinal ganglions of the corresponding nerve (= afferent). 2,6 1.1.1.4. Sensible fibres for autonomic structures: blood- en lymphatic vessels The cell bodies of the sensible fibres for autonomic structures are situated in the spinal ganglions of the segments where the sympathetic neurons start (SI-joint: T11-L1). The peripheral autonomic nerve contains generally autonomic-motor and sensible fibres and serves for the innervation of organs. Glands are always dubble innervated (sympathetic and parasympathetic), except for the adrenals. 2 Examples: The femoral arterie contains sensible fibres which go to the spinal ganglions and arrive in the dorsal horn where connections exist, via intercalar neurons, with the origins of the sympathethic fibres of the levels T10-T11. Knee joint: is sensible innervated via the sciatic nerve (posterior side of the knee), but in the knee capsule, sensible fibres exist which connect via the femoral arterie the levels T10-T12. 1.1.2. Properties of Peripheral Autonomic Fibres Peripheral autonomic nerves consist of autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. They innervate organs and glands. 1.1.2.1. Viscero-sensible fibres The cell bodies of viscero-sensible nerve fibres are situated in the spinal ganglions of those segments from where the sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons start. Example: the pelvis organs: S2-S4 and/or TLJ (= thoracolumbar junction). The TLJ receives a lot of information. Some of those stimuli go via the nervous supply in the blood vessel wall. 2 1.1.2.2. Motor fibres for smooth muscles The parasympathetic primary cells are situated in the brain stem to the level of C2 and the lateral horn of S2-S4. The sympathetic origin is situated in the lateral horn of C8-L2. 2,7,8 1.1.3. Axoplasma Flow of the Axons Materials and substances are moved within the cytoplasm of all cells. In the axoplasm (= cytoplasm of neurons), structures such as the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, microtubules and neurofilaments likely take part of the axoplasmic transport mechanism. Perhaps the human movement plays a role in this intracellular motility 9. In the cytoplasm of nerve fibres nutrients and transmitters are moved. At the nerve ends vesicles are located, that continue the transport into the gap junction. The transport in the axoplasma is termed antidrome and orthodrome transport. Antidrome (antegrade) transport occurs from central to the periphery and orthodrome (retrograde) transport in the opposite direction.1,10,11 For the sciatic nerve the antidrome transport is rather fast (12 hours), the orthodrome transport is slower (48 hours). 1.1.3.1. Signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres Ion-channels and receptors play an important role in the signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres. The ion-channels are located on the extremities of the fibres. They make the transport for the neurotransmitters possible. Receptors are specified. Every cell has ÂÂ ± 1 million receptors. The gates of the ion-channels (mostly proteins) can be inhibitory or excitatory. The Swann-cells are spread over the axon and form de myelin sheet. The myelin sheets are interrupted by the knots of Ranvier. In the CNS they are termed glial cells. The glial cells have several functions. The myelin sheets have a certain thickness. Unmyelinated axons have Schwann-cells as well. In myelinated axons the stimulus progresses salutatory and in unmyelinated axons the stimulus progresses slowly. The signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres has 3 kinds of stimulus progress being chemical transport, electric stimuli progression and axoplasm flow. Chemical transport occurs at the nerve ends, and consists of neurotransmitters. The transport depends of the kind of ion-channel, the neurotransmitter and the receptor. Electric stimuli progress over the axon and occur by opening of the ion-channels stimulation the own nerve ends due to production of the neurotransmitters. The speed of transmission depends of the presence of a myelin sheet and the diameter of the fibres. The axoplasm flow of the neurotransmitter in axoplasma (= chemical) occurs in 2 directions. Sometimes the pain can occur 24 hours after injury! It can also be very slow (up to 48 hours) and be resposible for the delayed onset of pain. 1,11 1.1.3.2. Morphologic and functional classification of nerve fibres: Understanding pain phenomen the morphologic and functional properties of nerve fibres is important. In time several classification systems have been investigated and proposed. 1.1.3.3. Classifying axons according to their conduction velocity In the 1920s and 1930s, there was a virtual use of classifying axons according to their conduction velocity 13. Three main categories were discerned, called A, B and C fibres: C fibres are the smallest and slowest. Mechanoreceptors generally fall in category A. The A group is further broken down into subgroups designated: the a fibres: the fastest the b fibres the d fibres: the slowest The muscle afferents axons are usually classified into four additional groups: I: the fastest II, III and IV: the slowest, with subgroups designated by lower case roman letters. 1.1.3.4. Properties of the A-d, A-b sensors or type I en II fibres The A-a and A-b fibres have low threshold properties. They are low threshold afferents/efferents, they have a quick adaptation, are bi- or monosynaptic and unimodal (= mechanosensors: only sensible for mechanical stimuli). They cross the midline in the spinal medulla. The A-b provides information about normal pressure or strain tension and the A-a provides information about position changes of joints in space. They give information about the smooth touch and kinesaesthesis in the skin. 1.1.3.5. Properties of the A-d and C sensors or type III en IV fibres 1.1.3.5.1. The A-d sensors or type III fibres The A-d or type III fibres are selective and have a slightly higher threshold than the A-a and the A-b sensors. They have a longer adaptation time. After a pin prick the pain keeps going on for a time which is a specific property of the A-d sensors. They are multisynaptic and cross the midline in the spinal medulla. A-d sensors are polymodal. They provide information about mechanical stretch and pressure forces from normal to noxious. They give information about temperature from normal to noxious stimuli. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 42ÂÂ °C especially C-fibres are involved. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 38ÂÂ °C the A-d fibres are responsible. A quantity of those fibres is noxious. They are termed: nocisensors but not all. Some measure only normal temperatures and they become nocisensors in case of tissue injury. 11 1.1.3.5.2. The C sensors or type IV fibres The C or type IV fibres are selective and have a high till very high threshold. They are slow to very slow with a long adaptation time. They have tonic and continuous activity properties. They cross the midline in the medulla medulla and are polymodal. The C fibres measure the chemical consistence of tissues from normal to noxious. They measure temperature from normal till abnormal (= noxious). Some of those fibres are nocisensors but not all of them. Example: the sensibility of the knee consists of 80% normal sensibility sensors and 20% nocisensors. 11 1.1.3.5.3. Difference between nocisensor- stimulation and pain A nocisensor measures the damage of injured tissue. A nocisensor can but must not necessarily provoke pain. A part of the A-d and C-fibres are nocisensors. They measure the damage or the almost-damage (mechanic, temperature, chemical). Their noxious stimulation does not always lead to pain perception. Here fore the stimulus must attain the thalamus and cerebral cortex, otherwise there is no pain sensation. Not all nociceptory stimuli rise so high to the midbrain or cortex. A lot of stimuli extinguish in the spinal medulla, the ascending pathways or in the brainstem. The stimulus attains the pain centres when the intensity of one stimulus is sufficient or when summation occurs of several stimuli in parts of the dorsal horn. As well reflectory (unconscious) as cognitive (conscious) reactions occur and the nocisensors will provoke pain, in case of severe damage. Thus, not all nocisensors provoke pain but they can be considered as normal pain fibres. It is logic that if a nocisensor is s ufficiently stimulated it will provoke the sensation of pain. A-d en C fibres can give pain thats not only caused by the damage itself, but as a result of the damage as well. A pain feelin which is more intense than normally expected is termed hyperalgesia. For example, when ice is applied on the skin it hurts but ice applied on a burned skin does hurt even more. When punctuated stimuli are applied on the course of the sciatic nerve it normally hurts but in case of sciatica it hurts even more (= hyperalgesia). Hyperalgesia is hypersensitivity on a stimulus that normally hurts, due to over stimulation of the nocisensors. The A-a and A-b fibres normally do not give pain, because they are not nocisensors. They register only normal values. Under certain circumstances they provoke pain. This happens in case of injured tissues or nerves or when the nocisensors become active. When nocisensors already give pain as a result of a decreased threshold, then the A-a and A-b fibres become sensiti ve as well. A light pressure on the pain area will also be painful. A low pressure- or strain force on the skin, tendons or muscles normally provoke no pain, but in case of damage it will well provoke pain. This is termed allodynia. Allodynia is pain that is caused by a stimulus that normally doesnt hurt due to an increased sensitivity of the the A-a and A-b fibres. This phenomon gives an opportunity to test the pain perception of the nervous system by use of pricking or brushing tests on the painfull area. There is a difference between nocisensor stimulation and the pain interpretation. 11 Table 5: Difference between nocicensor stimulation and pain. By use of selective stimulation the A-a and A-b fibres can be stimulated without that the A-d and C-fibres become active. This is caused by the low threshold of the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres compared with the A-d and C-fibres. A-d en C-fibres cant be stimulated selectively by use of mechanical stimuli because at the moment those fibres are stimulated; already the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres are active. When those become active, all fibres were stimulated. Also in case of nociception all those fibres are active. Selective stimulation can be used during TENS application or during active en passive mobilisations applied under the pain threshold level. 11 1.1.4. Hierarchy of the Nervous System The information processing in the nervous system happens on 4 levels. As well as the peripheral nerve ends, the dorsal horn, the brainstem and sub cortical and cortical levels are involvend. 1,7,11 1.1.4.1. The peripheral nerve ends The peripheral nerve ends are responsible for the uptake of information. The receptors are modulated by the state of surrounding tissue and the condition of the peripheral nerve. 1.1.4.2. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla The dorsal horn modulates the incoming signals and is influenced by the state of the dorsal horn and the quantity and kind of gathered stimuli. 1.1.4.3. The brainstem The brainstem provides the primary responses with autonomic and hormonal modulations as a response to stimulation. 1.1.4.4. Sub cortical and cortical levels The sub cortical and cortical area provides the conscious cognitive and psycho-emotional modulation. The processing of the information and response on stimulation depends on the hierarchic manner, but always occurs with a total integration of the whole nerve system. 1.1.4.5. The Archi-, Paleo- and Neo level of the nervous system The nervous system can be ordered depending on a hierarchic manner in an archi, paleo and a neo level. 7 1.1.4.5.1. The Archi level The archi level consists of the gray matter (dorsal horn) of the spinal medulla, the ascending multisynaptic pathways in and around the gray matter, the medial pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the mid part of the cerebellum and the brainstem (reticular formation). It is responsible for the most automatic movements after Hughlings Jackson. 7 1.1.4.5.2. The Paleo level The paleo level consists of the ascending pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the descending pathways in the ventro-lateral quadrant, the hormonal and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, the hypothalamus, certain parts of the cerebellum and the limbic system. Humoral influences from the liquor can influence (endofins) the sensibility of the pain system. 7 1.1.4.5.3. The Neo level The neo level consists of the dorsal ascending pathways, the dorso-lateral and ventral descending pathways, the cerebellar cortex, the lateral thamalus nuclei and the cerebral cortex. It is responsible for the cognitive mental processes, accurate skills and least automatic functions. 7 1.1.4.6. Phylogenetic development of the nervous system The phylogenetic development of the nervous system differs in time for the different levels. The archi-system is the oldest and is identical to that of the lower vertebrates. It is completely developed when born. The paleo-system is younger than the archi-system. It is identical of that of the lower vertebrates but only half developed when born. The neo-system is het youngest system in the phylogenetic evolution. It is much more developed than that of the lower vertebrates and not developed when born. 7 1.1.4.7. Functional properties of the different hierarchic systems of the nervous system Specific properties can be indicated to the different hierarchic levels of the nervous system. 1.1.4.7.1. Functional properties of the Archi level The archi level consists of C and A-d fibres. It is a relatively slow and tonic (continuous) working system that stands for the basic needs of life e.g.: basic survival or most automatic movements and autonomic functions such as basic tonus regulation in the brainstem and medial cerebellum. It is responsible for primary pain modulation e.g.: redraw reflex and increased tonus. 1.1.4.7.2. Functional properties of the Paleo level The paleo level consists especially of A-d, A-b, and C-fibres as well. It is a relative quicker system but also has tonic activity properties. The paleo level supports the archi-level by use of hormonal adaptation and psycho-emotional adaptation. It takes part of the autonomic function (hormonal function), fight/flight reactions in case of stress and pain and posture regulation (static posture balance). 1.1.4.7.3. Functional properties of the Neo level The neo level consists especially of A-a and A-b fibres and is very quick with phasic responses on stimulation. It analyses the information of the archi- and paleosystem and is guided by use of cognitive responses. The least automatic movements are guided and conscious movements. It regulates the dynamic posture balance and automatisation of movements. It is responsible for the organ sense perception and dissociated movement. 1.1.4.7.4. Interaction and control of the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system General principles of interaction among the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system can be summarized as follows. The paleo-system controls the archi-system and guides it. The neo-level controls the archi- and paleo system and guides both. The neo-level surrounds literally the archi and paleo level. The grey matter is situated medially in the nervous system medial in spinal medulla, the white matter laterally. The neo-system keeps the paleo-level and archi-level in harness. The hierarchic construction of the nervous system can be seen as a gate control system that exists on all levels. 7 1.1.4.7.5. Gate-control in the peripheral nerve fibres Axo-axonal connections between lower and higher fibres exist. The A-a and A-b fibres give off collaterals in the dorsal horn. The A-a and A-b attain the spinal medulla faster and prepare it for the arrival of A-d and C-stimuli. Selective stimulation of higher fibres (A-a and A-b fibres) inhibits the working of the fibres of lower order (A-d and C-fibres). 1.1.4.7.6. Gate control in the dorsal horn At the level of the dorsal horn interaction and control mechanisms exist and this phenomen known as Gate-control in the dorsal horn is also known as the gate theory of Melzack en Wall. The outlets of the A-a en A-b neurons shunt on the outlets of the A-d and C-neurons and their neurotransmitters close the ion-channels of these. The descending pathways of the paleo- and neosystem do the same and work on the interneurons and inhibit the A-d and C-neurons. 11 1.1.4.7.7. Gate-control in the brain The cortical pathways control the sub cortical pathways. They inhibit the brainstem reflexes. Conscious movements and intentions inhibit unconscious tonic reflexes (Example: relaxation). The cortical and sub cortical pathways regulate a directed and conscious life. The brainstem provides the autonomic support. This is all controlled by neurotransmitters. The perception of nociceptive pain not only involves the sensation transmitted and regulated by peripheral and central neurons, but is also affected by higher brain functions. 11 1.1.4.7.8. The uptake of nociception information A-d and C-fibres are the only fibres that can registrate nociception. The A-d fibres are quicker and give epicritic pain when the stimulus is attaining the pain centres. Epicritic pain means precise localisation with immediate redraw reflexes. The kind of pain is described as stabbing, boring, tearing or pulling. The impulses of the C-fibres attain the pain centres much later. They give protopathic pain, which is a continuous pain. That pain is not precisely located. Protopathic pain is burning, booring of a kind and continues much longer. It goes together with autonomic reactions, for expample: oedema. 11 1.1.5. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla 1.1.5.1. General survey of the classification of the grey matter of the spinal medulla The grey matter is divided in the 10 layers of Rexed. This system is named by Rexed who discovered that the neurons in the dorsal horn where organised in layers depending on their function. Every layer is present in different segments and forms rostro-caudal nuclear columns. The counting happens from the dorsal horn to the anterior horn. Every layer is in contact with another by interneurons and dendrites. Layer I and II: nocisensory outlets of both: musculo-skeletal and visceral structures Layer III: intersegmental ascending pathways (dorsal proprium tract) and outlets to the spinothalamic tract (anterolateral quadrant) Layer IV: exclusive nocisensors from the musculoskeletal system Layer V-VI: fibres arriving from the nocisensors of the skin and viscera Layer VII: lateral horn: interneurons and sympathetic neurons Layer VIII en IX: motoneurons for musculoskeletal system Layer X: hormonal neurons In all levels descending pathways arrive from diverse levels of the brain. 1.1.5.2. Somatotopic ordering of nocisensors in the dorsal horn In layer I-II the nocisensors of viscera and musculo-skeletal structures are laying next to each other. They are ordered in a sagittal way from medial to lateral. The medial structures project medial and lateral structures project laterally. In layer V the nocisensors of certain skin areas are lying next to the nocisensors of viscera. Those are ordered in horizontal layers. For example: the organ-nocisensors under the level of the diafragm are lying next to the skin sensors from Th7-Th10. 1.1.5.3. Segmental interactions in the dorsal horn Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal influence the nocisensoric function. Outlets of nocisensors stimulate interneurons. There exists interaction with the spinothalamic tract and interaction with motoric anterior horn cells (somato-somatic relation). Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal nocisensoric function and influence the outlets of nocisensors stimulate the interneurons causing interaction with spinothalamic tract and with the sympathetic lateral horn cells (viscero-visceral relation). 11 Abnormal reactions can occur when the outlets of nocisensors infect the other nocisensors. Those react in turn causing interaction between motoric and visceral responses. This results in a somato-visceral relation, a somato-sympathetic relation and a viscero-somatic relation. 1.1.5.4. The Importance of Wide Dynamic Range Neurons In layer III, wide dynamic range neurons (WDR-neurons) exist. 21 Those WDR-neurons are interneurons that connect all the A-d en C-fibres from the dorsal horn. They project on the spinothalamic tract (antero-lateral quadrant). The ventral pathways go to the reticular formation, medial thalamus and the medial limbic system. The lateral pathways go to the lateral thalamus and cortex. They connect all visceral and motoric stimuli (= summation) with as consequences that motoric and visceral stimuli are sent together to the brain. The brain receives segmental information and no individual information. The brain can project pain to segmental connected structures. This is termed referred pain. Examples are: the stomach ulcer can provoke inter scapular pain or cardiac complaints and can give ulnaris nerve pain. Pain does not always indicate the exact location and origine. Anamnesis, assessment and clinical reasoning are very important. 1.1.5.5. Inhibition and excitation of the dorsal horn Inhibition and excitation of impulses in the dorsal horn can be caused by outlets of peripheral nerves. For example the A-a and A-b can inhibit the A-d and C fibres (pre-synaptic inhibiton). The outlets of the descending pathways can influence the the nerve ends and the interneurons (postsynaptic inhibition/excitation). The interneurons themselves can cause pre- or postsynaptic inhibition/excitation. Summation of stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. If a segment is excited or inhibited depends on the som of stimuli. Nocisensory impulses of the peripheral nerves always excite the dorsal horn. Summation of exciting nocisensoric impulses is defined by spatial and temporal facilitation. Temporal facilitation means the timing; spatial facilitation, the diverse structures that are involved. Impulses of A-a and A-b neurons act generally inhibiting. The impulses from the descending pathways can act in both ways. They are also regulated by temporal and spatial factors. The sum of sti mulating and inhibiting stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. An excitated dorsal horn provokes a lot of irradiating pain. 1.2. Assessment of Primary and Secondary Hyperalgesia 1.2.1. Definition of primary hyperalgesia Changes in the local sensibility of the afferent neurons as a result of a lesion in the peripheral tissues are termed hyperalgesia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-a and A-b fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed allodynia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-d and C fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed hyperalgesia. The lesion in the peripheral tissue can be of inflammation or neurogenic origin. 22 1.2.1.1. Pathophysiology of primary hyperalgesia In case of tissue injury bradykinin and ATP is produced at the site of lesion. Those mediators stimulate the blood- and lymphatic vessels, the mast cells and nociceptors. In the circulation inflammatory mediators are released aswell as histamine, serotonin, NGF, leucocytes, trombocytes and others. C-fibres released neuropeptides such as SP and CGRP. Those modulate and stimulate the release of other inflammatory mediators aswell. All those mediators are termed the inflammatory soup. Those mediators also stimulate the C-fibres which causes a vicious circle. The sympathetic nerve terminals are stimulated by inflammation and release noradrenalin which also stimulates the C-fibres. The sympathetic coupling between C-fibres and sympathetic end neurons occurs. The presence of inflammatory mediators decreases the threshold of all types of endneurons with as a result local allodynia and hyperalgesia. The allodynia and hyperalgesia can spread in the surrounding tissue, by stimulating the surro unding neurons. This is termed the flair zone. 22,23 Figure 16: Consequences of tissue injury: the inflammatory soup. 14 1.2.1.2. Primary hyperalgesia and the dorsal horn The A-d mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, and C-nocisensors stimulate the dorsal horn of somatic connected segments. As a consequence a temporary wind-up can occur. A wind-up is an over stimulation that can hold on for 72 hours. A refectory muscular reaction occurs around the lesion aswell. As a result the stimulation via the ascending pathways (antero-lateral quadrant) to the brain increases. Protopatic pain (quick, stabbing pain) followed by epicritical pain (boring, continuous pain) occurs. The brainstem regulates the autonomic reactions further such as sympathetic, hormonal, and emotional. The C-nocisensors give stimuli to the sympathetic connected segments. As a result the sympathetic system stimulates the C-endneurons (= sympathetic coupling) and vasoconstriction on the arterioles and lymphatic vessels. 20,24 1.2.1.3. Primary hyperalgesia and nerve injury When compressed inflammation occurs as prescribed above. In case of long standing injury, an ectopic injury occurs. This can be located on different locations on the peripheral nerve with the result that hyperalgesia and allodynia occurs on the course of the nerve, the connected dermatomes and this from the nerve root! In the spinal ganglion of the nerve, the sympathetic endneurons grow round the nerve cells with the occurrence of basket formations as a result. Consequently sympathetic maintained pain (SMP) occurs, also termed causalgia. This phenomon can continue for 7 to 10 weeks after the lesion but can also continue afterwards. 10 25 To summarize we can state that inflammation provokes a local hyperalgesia and allodynia, which spreads over the flair zone. Locally a vicious circle between the inflammatory soup and C-fibres takes place and sympathetic coupling between sympathetic end-neurons and C-fibres occurs. This continues until the tissue heals. Normally the medulla reacts with a temporary wind-up and a normal stimulus-response reaction. In case of neurogenic injury, causalgia may occur and sensitisation of the dorsal horn is possible. 22 1.2.1.4. Clinical pain assessment in case of primary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, in case of primary hyperalgesia, when brushing or by use of punctuate stimuli the following properties are local allodynia and hyperalgesia restricted to the flair zone. In case of a nerve injury the flair zone is restricted to the course of the nerve root. Local sympathetic reactions occur when inflamed but are restricted in time. In case of allodynia and hyperalgesia when brushing and applying punctuated stimuli on the course of the nerve or a part of it, sympathetic reactions in the dermatome of the nerve can occure aswell. 22 1.2.2. Definition of Secondary Hyperalgesia An increased sensibility of all types of nerve fibres that continues outside the flair zone of the original lesion, linked to the course of the hyperalgesia and allodynia around the tissue, is termed secondary hyperalgesia. 22 1.2.2.1. Pathophysiology of secondary hyperalgesia When tissue is injured, nociceptors stimulate the interneurons by use of neurotransmitters such as SP, CGRP, NO, Ca, etc. The A-a and A-b neurons provide inhibiting neurotransmitters and the descending pathways give exciting or inhibiting mediators. The WDR-neurons receive al those impulses and send them to the spino-thalamic tract. WDR-neuron receptors differ. Some open ion-channels using inhibiting neurotransmitters, others open ion-channels using exciting neurotransmitters depending on the kind of receptor. If the stimulus acts inhibiting or exciting depends on the quantity of the opened inhibiting- or exciting ion-channels. In case of secondary hyperalgesia, more excitatory stimuli exist and insufficient inhibiting ways are activated. The WDR-neurons will work exiciting as well because of the fact they do not only activate the spino-thalamic pathways but also on the incoming stimulating neurons. As a result a vicious circle occurs in the dorsal horn. This provokes a decreased thr eshold of the present neurons. The sensors are also stimulated by the dorsal horn and not only by the local lesion. They become sensitized over their whole course with the consequence that the central hyperalgesia is linked to the lesion. When the local lesion is healing, the central allodynia will also disappear. Hyperalgesia is not as much linked to the course of the lesion but can last longer. Its origin is mostly caused by temporal and spatial summation of exciting stimuli. 22 1.2.2.2. Clinical pain assessment in case of secondary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, when touching (brushing) and applying punctuate stimuli local hyperalgesia en allodynia and extending hyperalgesia and allodynia can be observed. When the pain occurs outsite the spinal column area the touching (brushing) and applied punctuate stimuli starting from the lesion and over the dermatome near by. The application must be enlarged to the neighbouring dermatomes and also to the corresponding segments of the spine. Always compare with the opposite side. Differentiate allodynia and hyperalgesia. 22 In case of primary hyperalgia the allodynia and/or hyperalgesia is restricted to the lesion area and flair zone. The allodynia disappears before the hyperalges

Global Warming Essay -- Climate Change, Greenhouse Gases

Global Warming    Even before Homo erectus first stood up on his hind legs, humans have had an enormous influence over the environment and atmosphere. They have used land, oceans, and other natural resources to help further their expansion and growth. Unfortunately, while the human race flourished, the atmosphere and environment did not. Humans released toxins into the air with their large-scale fires and killed many species to extinction. However, global warming is one of the largest and most current dilemmas the Earth is facing. Over the past century, the temperature of the Earth’s surface has risen 1 ° C and in the past fifty years, humans have been the primary cause of the warming of our planet. One of the major confusions in environmental issues today is the concept of the â€Å"greenhouse effect†. People identify this term in a very negative fashion when in fact the greenhouse effect is what keeps Earth’s temperature livable for organisms such as humans. Energy from the sun heats up Earth’s surface and in turn the Earth radiates some of that heat back into space. The purpose of the atmosphere is to trap some of the â€Å"greenhouse gases† and energy in order to keep temperatures similar to what they are today as well as protect from extreme temperatures. However, complications arise when the concentration of the greenhouse gases increase. Before the Industrial revolution, human activities did not have such a drastic effect on the atmosphere. Yet, as the population of humans on Earth grew, more gases began to be emitted into the atmosphere where they accumulated and remained. One of the most detrimental gases to the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, is accumulating at an alarmingly fast rate. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxi... ...her living creatures. Educating the public about the causes and effects of global warming is a step that many countries, states, and cities have taken. One local example is the â€Å"Walk! Philadelphia† campaign which encourages people to walk or use public transportation to reduce the use of cars. Currently, international and government agencies are thinking of ways to monitor and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases released into the air. I am optimistic that our government and governments from all over the world are working hard to overcome the causes and effects of global warming. While any large-scale change will be gradual, there is no doubt in my mind that we will fix the atmospheric problems to the best of our ability. Source Cited Environmental Protection Agency’s Global Warming website at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/index.html

Genocide in Rwanda Essay -- Rwanda History Historical Race Essays

Genocide in Rwanda   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, this inhumane act, known as Genocide, is briefly defined as follows, ?...acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group...? (Journal of Peace). Unfortunately, throughout history, such acts seem to be intervened upon when it is merely too late. In the country of Rwanda, over a period of one hundred days, over 800,000 people were murdered over their ascribed race. A similar situation is currently taking place at this moment in time in Sudan, where 30,000 people have recently been killed and the numbers are still rising. However, the international community has not yet responded to prevent further killings. These two countries seem to share similar histories which may have lead to the horrifying, ethnically grounded acts of genocide and racial cleansing. In this paper, we will compare and contrast the similar historica l and social-political conditions of these two countries. We will also evaluate the international community's response to the current situation in Sudan and the likelihood of a resolution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1994, genocide lasted in Rwanda for merely 100 days, killing over 800,000 people. ?This was the fastest, most thoroughly ruthless programme of ?racial killing? yet implemented in the world? (Journal of Peace). The victims were those who had the ascribed identity of a Tutsi. Those who belonged to Rwanda?s military or were of the Hutu identity, carried out these inhumane acts of racial purification. There has been conflict between these two identity groups of Rwanda dating back to pre-colonial times. Many blame the act of genocide on Rwanda?s past history between these two identity groups. Let us now take a brief look at Rwanda?s history and examine the accuracy of this argument.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The pre-colonial era of Rwanda consisted of expansion of the country into neighboring areas, belonging to both Hutu and Tutsi kingdoms. Class stratification of these two groups was unclear and based largely upon social status. As Rwanda began to develop, the term Hutu and Tutsi became status terminology rather then an ethnic identity. The Tutsi resembled those of the higher status, and within this class stratification you could even belong to bother the Hutu and the Tutsi, namely the Twa... ... and do not provide enough proof for the international community to stop this obvious case of genocide. There has been absolutely no meaningful international forces deployed that could have any affect on stopping the massacre.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The little response of the international community is disheartening. Because many feel there is no other way to categorize these acts, of no other then, civil conflict is outrageous. Genocide is a act that is extremely difficult to prove. Since there are multiple groups of ethnicity?s and religions affected by these acts, it is nearly impossible to prove genocide, because in order to do so, it must affect one specific group. This is why, many believe this to be an act of ethnic cleansing, a civil conflict, one the international law can not stop.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout our history there have been numerous accusations of genocide, namely the Nazi Holocaust and the Rwanda situation in 1994. It is very insignificant that we have not learned from our past, that these acts must be stopped and prevented. Apparently, what must be done is a change in international law. Allowing such acts as the one presently occurring to be stopped before it is too late.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Paul Strand :: essays research papers

Key Figures 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1936 Strand joined with Berenice Abbot to establish the Photo League in New York 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strand was the first photographer to acheive a really decisive break with pictorialism and apply some of the lessons of the new modern art to photography. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul Strand was born in New York and attended the Ethical Culture School where his teacher was Lewis Hine. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strands later work moved toward a documentary approach, attempting to encapsulate a feeling a place and its people in a body of work, published in book form. The most successful of these dealth with rural communities such as the Hebridean Islands or a village in the Italian South. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Strands work was published in the last two issues of Camera Work and the pictures marked a turning point for photography. Laslo Moholy-Nagy 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teacher at the Bauhaus School in Germany. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establishes the New Bauhaus at the Chicago Institute of Design. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Used straight photography and photomontage. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Disorienting Images. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Experimented with stage design and photography. Man Ray 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Surrealist 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Made dreamlike images 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His revolutionary nude studies, fashion work, and portraits opened a new chapter in the history of photography. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  he was enthusiastically welcomed into Dadaist and Surrealist circles 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Man Ray experimented tirelessly with new photographic techniques, multiple exposure, rayography, and solarization being some of his most famous. John Heartfield 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Original name Helmut Herzfeld 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  German Dadaist. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pushed the idea of using massprinted source material by inventing the photomontage. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  practice social criticism 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wasn’t allowed to express himself in Germany during Hitler’s time. Aleksandr Rodchenko 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aimed to make the familiar strange. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wanted to challenge or provoke the viewer. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Valued technology 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Style : close ups, unusual vantage points, tilted his camera. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Was born in Russia. Edward Weston 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Photographing natural landscapes and forms such as peppers, shells, and rocks, using large-format cameras and available light 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  produced sensuously precise images raised to the level of poetry. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He became successful working in a soft-focus, Pictorial style, winning many salon and professional awards. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1920 he was experimenting with semi-abstractions in a hard-edged style. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  own portrait studio between 1911 and 1922 in Tropico, California. Eugene Atget 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  first of photography's social documenters 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His images of Paris are perhaps the most vivid record of a city ever made. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  sold 2500 negatives relating to the history of Paris, a large portion of the work he had been accumulating for two decades, to the Caisse National des Monuments Historiques. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  some of his photographs were in the magazine La revolution surrealà ­ste.

Legal Process on BC Essay

COMM 393 PRACTICE QUESTION Mike, owner of Amazing Mike’s Marketing Services Company, has come to see you. He has been sued in the Small Claims Court of British Columbia by an employee he terminated when he decided to â€Å"modernize† his company by eliminating any employees who were not under age 25, blond, and Christian. He thought doing this would improve his own business image. Grace, the terminated employee, has brought a claim, asking for wages and damages in the amount of $75,000, bringing her claim under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Review with Mike any legal issues he may use to defend the claim brought by Grace. ISSUE 1: (what is the LEGAL issue the judge will have to decide?) LAW: (use your textbook, cases we have studied in class, statutes, and class notes as sources of law) APPLICATION: (apply the law to the facts. Make arguments for the plaintiff AND defendant) CONCLUSION: (this is the answer to the Issue) ISSUE 2: LAW: APPLICATION: CONCLUSION: Review with Mike any legal issues he may use to defend the claim brought by Grace. 1.Can Grace bring her action against Mike in Small Claims Court? The law is that an action can only be commence in Small Claims Court in B.C. where there is a civil action and the remedy sought is damages of less than or equal to $25,000. Although Grace has commenced her action in Small Claims for $75,000, Mike would argue that since Grace is suing for $75,000 she must  commence the action against him in the Supreme Court of B.C. and not in Small Claims Court. Grace will not be able to bring this case in Small Claims Court. 2.Can Grace base her claim on the Charter of Rights and Freedoms? Section 15 of the Charter states that every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. Grace will argue that she is being discriminated against under this section. However, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms applies only to Government and Government action or decision making. It prevents the government from creating laws or taking action that would be contrary to the rights guaranteed in the Charter. The Charter does not apply in interpersonal relationships. In this case because the action by Grace involves an interpersonal relationship between an employer and an employee, the Charter would not apply. She would have to base her arguments on the appropriate section(s) of the Human Rights Code. It seems that Mike’s defences under these two grounds would be successful. He may be able to stall the action brought by Grace but perhaps not eliminate it. She will have to begin her action in B.C. Supreme Court for breach of the Human Rights Code (not the Charter of Rights and Freedoms)